2.1. Outline theories of communication

This guide will help you answer 2.1. Outline theories of communication.

Theories of communication help explain how information is sent, received, understood, and interpreted. They offer useful frameworks for understanding the communication process and improving its effectiveness. In health and social care, these theories are essential for creating meaningful interactions with service users, colleagues, and other professionals.

This guide outlines key theories of communication, including their relevance and application within health and social care settings. Effective communication strategies play a crucial role in promoting positive health outcomes and building strong relationships between patients and care providers. By understanding and applying communication theories, professionals can tailor their approach to meet the diverse needs of individuals and ensure clear and respectful interactions. This guide also offers practical examples and tips for implementing effective communication strategies in various health and social care contexts, aimed at improving overall quality of care and patient satisfaction.

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

The Shannon and Weaver model is one of the most widely known theories. Originally designed to study telephone communication, it has since been applied to many other settings, including health and social care.

This model describes communication as a linear process with six key elements:

1. Sender: The person who initiates the message. This could be a healthcare worker providing advice to a patient.
2. Message: The information being shared, such as instructions or feelings.
3. Encoding: How the sender chooses to deliver the message. For example, speaking, writing, or using sign language.
4. Channel: The method used to send the message. This might involve face-to-face conversation, a phone call, or an email.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message. For example, a service user or team member.
6. Noise: Anything that disrupts or interferes with the message. Noise could be literal, like background sound, or more abstract, like misunderstandings or emotional barriers.

Relevance to Health and Social Care:

The Shannon and Weaver model highlights the importance of clarity. It shows that to communicate effectively, you need to think about how messages are delivered and received. For example:

• A support worker may need to speak slowly and clearly for a person with a hearing impairment.
• A doctor might confirm a message has been understood by asking the patient to repeat key points back.

The concept of “noise” is particularly relevant. In a hospital, physical noise could make verbal communication harder, while emotional factors like stress or fear might prevent a patient from processing the information they are given.

Argyle’s Communication Cycle

Michael Argyle’s communication cycle focuses on the continuous, two-way nature of communication. He argued that effective communication involves sending a message, receiving it, and then feedback to show it has been understood.

The cycle has six stages:

1. Idea Occurs: The sender decides what message to communicate.
2. Message Coded: The sender thinks about how to express their idea, such as by speaking or writing.
3. Message Sent: The sender delivers the message through a chosen method.
4. Message Received: The receiver senses the communication, such as hearing or reading it.
5. Message Decoded: The receiver interprets and makes sense of the message.
6. Feedback: The receiver responds, showing whether they have understood.

Relevance to Health and Social Care:

Argyle’s cycle highlights that communication is not just about delivering information but about ensuring it is understood. Feedback is a key part of this process. For example:

• A care assistant explaining a care plan might ask, “Do you feel comfortable with this plan?” The service user’s response helps confirm whether they understand the care being offered.
• If a service user looks confused, their facial expression acts as non-verbal feedback, signalling the worker should adapt their communication approach.

Feedback helps workers identify misunderstandings and adjust their methods. This is particularly useful when communicating with individuals who may struggle to process information due to language barriers, cognitive impairments, or emotional states.

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

David Berlo expanded on the Shannon and Weaver model by focusing on four key components of communication:

1. Source: The sender, whose skills, attitudes, and knowledge affect how well the message is delivered. A confident, well-trained healthcare worker is more likely to succeed in sharing information.
2. Message: The content of the communication, including structure and clarity. Simple, direct information often works best.
3. Channel: The senses involved, such as hearing, seeing, or touch. For example, a nurse might explain an injection both verbally (hearing) and by demonstrating the equipment (seeing).
4. Receiver: The individual who decodes the message. Their background, experience, and attitudes influence how they interpret and understand the information.

Relevance to Health and Social Care:

Berlo’s model highlights the impact of individual differences on communication outcomes. For example:

• A worker explaining treatment options must adapt to the service user’s knowledge and experience level. A young carer new to the healthcare system might require more explanation than an experienced caregiver.
• A care worker supporting someone with a sensory impairment might choose a tactile approach, such as using touch to reassure a blind individual.

The model encourages professionals to adapt their communication strategies to the specific needs and abilities of individuals.

Bruce Tuckman’s Group Communication Theory

Bruce Tuckman’s theory focuses on the stages of group dynamics, which can influence communication between members. He identified four main stages:

1. Forming: The group comes together, often with limited communication while individuals get to know one another.
2. Storming: Differences in opinions may arise, and conflict could affect communication.
3. Norming: The group starts to develop stronger relationships and collaborate effectively.
4. Performing: Communication flows smoothly, and the team works towards common goals.

An additional stage, Adjourning, refers to when a group disbands, and members reflect on their experience.

Relevance to Health and Social Care:

Tuckman’s theory is highly applicable to teams in health and social care. Workers often operate in multidisciplinary teams, where good communication is essential for success. For example:

• Newly formed teams may experience difficulties during the “storming” stage while building relationships.
• By the “norming” or “performing” stage, team members communicate more openly, share ideas, and work effectively to improve outcomes.

Tuckman’s theory reminds professionals to be patient during difficult stages and work towards open, respectful communication to strengthen team dynamics.

Transactional Analysis (Eric Berne)

Transactional analysis examines the social roles people adopt in communication, particularly how they interact with others. Berne suggested three “ego states” shape communication:

1. Parent: Authoritative or nurturing communication, such as giving instructions or showing care.
2. Adult: Logical and reasoned communication, focused on facts and problem-solving.
3. Child: Emotional or playful communication, often driven by feelings or spontaneity.

Relevance to Health and Social Care:

Transactional analysis is useful for recognising communication styles and adapting to different situations. For instance:

• A healthcare professional using the parent role might offer reassurance to a nervous service user.
• A care worker using the adult role could explain clinical decisions logically to a family member.
• Understanding when a service user adopts the child role, such as during a period of distress, helps workers to respond appropriately by offering support in a nurturing way.

By recognising these ego states, professionals can create better rapport and trust during interactions.

Conclusion

Theories of communication provide useful tools for understanding and improving how information is shared. In health and social care, these theories help professionals adapt their communication to meet individual needs and improve outcomes.

The Shannon and Weaver model focuses on clarity and managing barriers, while Argyle’s cycle highlights the importance of feedback. Berlo’s SMCR model reminds professionals to adapt communication to different users, and Tuckman’s group theory explains the stages of team communication. Transactional analysis helps in understanding how emotional roles and behaviours influence interactions.

By applying these theories in your work, you can provide clearer, more effective communication, which benefits service users, colleagues, and organisations.