1.2. Describe ethical theories

This guide will help you answer 1.2. Describe ethical theories.

Ethical theories provide frameworks to help people decide what actions are right or wrong. In health and social care, these theories guide professionals to act in ways that protect individuals’ rights and promote welfare. Different theories focus on different aspects of morality. Understanding these theories helps workers make informed decisions in complex situations. This guide look at the major ethical theories and how they are connected to health and social care.

Deontology

Deontology focuses on rules and duties. It argues that acts are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of their outcomes. The term comes from the Greek word “deon,” meaning duty.

Deontology suggests that you should always follow moral rules. For example, lying is always wrong, even if the lie would avoid harm. This means acting ethically means doing your duty, even when it has difficult consequences.

In health and social care, deontology might apply when following policies like confidentiality. For example:

• A worker refuses to disclose private information about a patient, even if pressured to share it.
• The focus is on acting according to professional duties rather than the impact of breaking the rules.

Deontology prioritises the dignity and rights of individuals, which aligns well with many care-related principles. However, strict adherence to rules can sometimes cause ethical tension, particularly when outcomes seem harmful.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism focuses on outcomes rather than rules. It is based on the principle of “the greatest good for the greatest number.” Actions are judged as right if they maximise happiness and reduce suffering across the majority.

This means decisions should balance benefits and harm. For example:

• A doctor allocates resources like medication to treat the largest number of patients possible, even if it feels unfair to some individuals.
• Another example might involve making decisions about organ transplants based on saving the most lives.

In health and social care, utilitarianism may conflict with the need to meet individual rights. For instance, care workers may feel torn between helping one person in distress or addressing the needs of a larger group.

While this approach can lead to effective decision-making for groups, it risks neglecting minority voices and individual needs.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on character rather than actions or results. This theory asks, “What kind of person should I be?” rather than “What should I do?” It encourages people to cultivate virtues—positive qualities like compassion, kindness, and honesty.

In health and social care, this theory highlights the importance of workers’ personal characteristics. For example:

• A care worker showing empathy while providing end-of-life care.
• A nurse being patient and understanding with someone experiencing anxiety.

Virtue ethics promotes consistently “doing the right thing” through the development of good habits and intentions. However, it can be difficult to agree on what virtues are most important, as they might vary by culture or personal belief.

Principlism

Principlism is a practical ethical theory based on four principles:

• Autonomy: Respecting people’s ability to make their own decisions.
• Beneficence: Acting in a way that benefits others.
• Non-maleficence: Avoiding harm.
• Justice: Treating people fairly and equitably.

Each principle provides guidance without being tied to specific rules or outcomes. In practice, a professional must balance these principles, as they can sometimes conflict.

For example:

• Respecting a patient’s autonomy by allowing them to refuse treatment, even if it goes against beneficence (acting in their best interest).
• Ensuring justice in resource allocation by treating service users equally despite their differences.

Principlism is widely used in healthcare guidance, as it allows professionals to consider multiple factors without over-relying on one theory.

Feminist Ethics

Feminist ethics focuses on relationships, equality, and care. It challenges traditional ethical theories, which often emphasise abstract rules or outcomes. Instead, it prioritises the lived experiences of individuals, particularly those from marginalised groups.

In practice, feminist ethics in health and social care encourages:

• Building strong, trusting relationships with service users.
• Recognising power imbalances and advocating for vulnerable individuals.

For example, this theory might influence how workers approach safeguarding by carefully considering the feelings and perspectives of the person at risk. It challenges professionals to focus on empathy and justice while addressing power gaps in care settings.

Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism argues that right or wrong depends on cultural or individual perspectives. What one culture sees as moral might differ from another. This theory encourages understanding and respect for different beliefs and traditions.

In health and social care, ethical relativism may come into play when working with diverse communities. For instance:

• Supporting cultural practices that differ from your own.
• Providing care that aligns with a person’s values, like respecting dietary needs or traditions tied to religion.

While ethical relativism encourages respect, it brings challenges. Professionals must avoid conflicting with basic rights or professional ethics, even if cultural differences arise.

Care Ethics

Care ethics emphasises the importance of care and relationships in moral decision-making. It focuses on understanding the specific needs of individuals and acting in a way that supports them emotionally and physically.

In health and social care, this theory encourages:

• Considering the person’s experiences and feelings when making decisions.
• Prioritising compassion and interconnection in all interactions.

For instance, a care worker might go beyond a standardised approach to provide comfort to a resident who feels scared or lonely. Care ethics supports a more human-centred approach but can lack structured guidance when facing conflicting needs.

Natural Law

Natural law focuses on universal moral principles that come from human nature or natural order. It suggests that there are inherent moral truths and that acting contrary to them is wrong.

In health and social care, natural law may influence practices like protecting life at all costs. For example:

• Refusing actions perceived as going against the natural value of life, such as euthanasia.

While this approach supports moral consistency, it can conflict with other ethical principles, like respect for autonomy.

Comparing Ethical Theories

Different theories emphasise distinct priorities:

• Deontology focuses on following rules (confidentiality or safeguarding policies).
• Utilitarianism seeks to maximise benefits for the majority (allocating resources).
• Virtue ethics highlights character qualities (compassion and patience).
• Feminist ethics and care ethics centre on relationships and equity.
• Ethical relativism highlights cultural awareness (respecting diverse practices).

Professionals often apply ethical theories together. Using one theory alone may not address the complexities of care. Combining theories provides more balanced, ethical decisions.

Practical Application in Health and Social Care

To use ethical theories in the workplace:

• Reflect on professional principles, policies, and codes of practice.
• Consider which ethical theory fits each situation.
• Seek advice from supervisors or teams when conflicts arise.

Training in ethical theories helps workers strengthen decision-making skills. It also ensures actions are thoughtful, fair, and considerate of everyone’s needs and rights.