1.1 Analyse and evaluate the contribution made to the understanding of human behaviour by three key psychological studies

This guide will help you answer 1.1 Analyse and evaluate the contribution made to the understanding of human behaviour by three key psychological studies.

Psychology has developed through research studies that have explored different aspects of human behaviour. Some studies have shaped psychological theory, while others have influenced real‑world practice such as education, therapy, and workplace processes. Analysing and evaluating landmark studies gives insight into how human behaviour has been explained and influenced over time. This section explores three widely recognised studies. Each has made an important contribution to psychological thinking and has influenced both research and applied fields.

The three studies covered here are:

• Stanley Milgram’s obedience study (1963)
• Bandura, Ross and Ross Social Learning Theory ‘Bobo Doll’ study (1961)
• Loftus and Palmer’s eye‑witness testimony study (1974)

Milgram’s Study of Obedience

Milgram’s work examined how far people will follow instructions from an authority figure, even when those instructions cause harm to another person. His interest came from wanting to understand events during the Second World War, where many soldiers claimed they were “just following orders” when committing atrocities.

Milgram recruited male participants through advertisements, telling them the study was about learning and memory. A teacher–learner set‑up was used, with participants assigned the role of ‘teacher’ and a confederate playing the ‘learner’. The teacher was instructed to deliver increasingly strong electric shocks for wrong answers. In reality, the shocks were not real, but the participant believed they were. Actors and pre‑recorded sounds were used to create a convincing setting.

Results showed that 65% of participants gave shocks of 450 volts. Many were visibly distressed but continued after prompts from the experimenter. This revealed that authority pressure can lead ordinary people to follow instructions against their moral values.

Contribution to psychology

Milgram’s study:

• Showed the power of authority and obedience across cultures and contexts.
• Influenced later research in social psychology exploring compliance and conformity.
• Had practical relevance for organisations, military training, and ethics in leadership.

It sparked public debate about personal responsibility under authority and highlighted how environmental factors can override moral judgement.

Limitations and criticisms

• Ethics: Psychological harm, deception, and lack of informed consent were major concerns. The intense distress led to tighter ethical guidelines in research.
• Sampling: The sample was mainly American men, so findings may not apply equally across wider populations.
• Lack of realism: Some later argued participants might have guessed the shocks were fake, although follow‑up studies with higher realism produced similar results.

Milgram’s work remains a strong example of how controlled experiments can show extreme social influence effects, despite being controversial.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Albert Bandura and his colleagues developed Social Learning Theory, which proposed that people learn behaviour through observing and imitating others. They focused on modelling — where seeing a behaviour increases the chance of it being copied, especially when the model is admired or rewarded.

The study involved nursery school children, split into groups to watch different adult models interact with a large inflatable doll (Bobo Doll). One group saw an adult act aggressively towards the doll, another group saw non‑aggressive behaviour, and a control group saw no model. Some children saw the models rewarded, others saw them punished, or received no feedback about consequences.

When placed in the same room with the doll and other toys, children who had viewed the aggressive model were more likely to behave aggressively towards the doll. This effect was stronger when the model was rewarded.

Contribution to psychology

Bandura’s study:

• Provided evidence that behaviour can be learned through observation without direct reinforcement.
• Changed thinking from behaviourism’s focus on direct stimulus–response links to a more social‑cognitive view.
• Inspired applications in education, parenting, advertising, and media regulation by showing how role models shape actions.

It explained why exposure to violence in media and at home was linked to real‑life aggressive behaviour.

Limitations and criticisms

• Short‑term effects: The study did not assess if imitation continued in the long term.
• Artificial setting: Playing with a novelty toy in a lab may not match how children behave in the real world.
• Cultural bias: Participants were from one culture and time period, so the strength of modelling effects may differ in today’s social environments.
• Ethics: No long‑term harm was shown, but some concern remains over exposing children to aggressive role models.

Despite limitations, the Bobo Doll research strongly shaped theories of how people acquire behaviour patterns and attitudes.

Loftus and Palmer’s Eye‑Witness Testimony Study

Elizabeth Loftus carried out research into memory and its reliability, focusing on how questioning can influence recall. In their 1974 study, Loftus and Palmer showed participants videos of car accidents and then asked questions using different wording.

The key manipulation was the verb in the critical question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted each other?” Those hearing “smashed” reported higher speeds than those hearing softer verbs. In a follow‑up, participants were later asked if they had seen broken glass in the film. More of the “smashed” group said yes, even though there was no broken glass.

Contribution to psychology

Loftus and Palmer’s study:

• Showed that memory is reconstructive and can be influenced by language and suggestion.
• Influenced legal systems, highlighting risks of unreliable eyewitness accounts.
• Promoted changes in police interviewing techniques, leading to the development of the Cognitive Interview.
• Demonstrated that post‑event information can distort recall, contributing to wrongful convictions.

This study confirmed that people’s memories are not like a video recording, but can be altered by how questions are asked.

Limitations and criticisms

• Artificial setting: Watching a film is not the same as witnessing a real‑life accident with associated stress and emotional impact.
• Restricted sample: Mainly student participants, limiting how the results apply to the wider population.
• Overemphasis on inaccuracy: While showing memory’s flaws, eyewitnesses can still be accurate under certain conditions.

Despite these concerns, Loftus and Palmer’s research had strong practical effects on justice systems worldwide.

Comparing the Three Studies

All three studies shaped psychological thinking in different areas:

• Milgram focused on authority and obedience.
• Bandura examined learning through observation.
• Loftus and Palmer looked at the accuracy of memory.

Each study used experimental methods, but their findings influenced practice far beyond the laboratory. They all faced criticism for ecological validity and ethical concerns, especially Milgram’s. Yet each sparked substantial changes in public awareness, policy, and further research.

Key similarities:

• Used controlled experiments to isolate variables.
• Offered new perspectives on how behaviour is influenced by social and cognitive factors.
• Triggered ethical discussions, leading to stricter research guidelines.

Key differences:

• Milgram and Bandura explored direct behavioural outcomes.
• Loftus and Palmer examined mental processes that lead to behaviour.
• Bandura involved children, while the other two tested adults.

Practical Applications

These studies have been applied in many contexts:

• Education: Bandura’s findings are used in classroom management and role‑model training.
• Law enforcement: Loftus and Palmer’s work informs interviewing and identification procedures.
• Workplace training: Milgram’s study supports training on ethical decision‑making and resisting wrongful authority.

By linking research to real‑world settings, psychologists have improved systems in legal, educational, and organisational areas.

Ongoing Influence

Modern research keeps building on these classic studies. Replications and variations have tested their reliability and broadened their scope:

• Milgram’s paradigm has been adapted ethically, still finding high obedience levels.
• Bandura’s theory is supported in studies of online influences and media effects.
• Loftus’s theories are applied in digital misinformation research.

These studies remain highly cited in textbooks and professional discussions because they continue to offer relevant insights into human behaviour.

Final Thoughts

Milgram, Bandura, and Loftus each provided evidence that social and environmental factors have a strong effect on what people think, remember, and do. They showed that behaviour is rarely just about personality or genetics — situations, models, and even the words used in a question can steer actions and memories.

While all three faced limitations, their contributions stand out because they shifted thinking in psychology, created changes in real‑life practice, and continue to guide both research and professional training. As with all scientific work, their findings should be seen as part of a wider body of evidence, but they remain key reference points for anyone studying human behaviour.